The flowers are typical of Papilionoid legumes, borne on short mm long slender pedicels, 2 cm long, with a five-lobed campanulate bell-shaped calyx and a typical pea-shaped whitish-pink or purple corolla with five strongly unequal petals. The wing and keel petals are also usually pink. There are 10 whitish stamens, 9 united into a tube and one free. The pods are cm long and 1. There are lenticular, round or elliptic, yellow-brown, darker orange-brown when mature, seeds per pod, 8.
The distribution of G. This has been promoted by massive habitat disturbance, now making it difficult to discern the true extent of the native distribution of this species Hughes, ; Simons, a. While some authors e. Standley and Steyermark, ; White, ; McVaugh, have postulated a wide native range covering Mexico, Central America, northern South America and the Caribbean, others have suggested a less extensive range, restricted to the seasonally-dry tropical forest formation of Mexico and Central America, from Sinaloa in north-west Mexico to Guanacaste in Costa Rica Janzen, ; Hughes, Detailed distribution maps are provided by Hughes , Lavin and Sousa and Lavin et al.
Here we follow the most updated classification that consider G. The distribution in this summary table is based on all the information available. When several references are cited, they may give conflicting information on the status. Further details may be available for individual references in the Distribution Table Details section which can be selected by going to Generate Report. An early introduction to many other countries, principally for use as a shade tree over cacao, coffee or tea plantations, has been documented: to the Caribbean before Ford, , and to Sri Lanka in the s based on seed from a single tree from Trinidad Hughes, These sporadic early introductions have been supplemented by even more widespread distribution of seed to 55 countries for species trials, and later provenance trials Hughes and Styles, ; Hughes, , and G.
Risks are therefore more likely to be associated with existing plants in cultivation becoming weedy than to be linked with new introductions. The extent to which it is considered a problem weed varies among authors, as in some countries spread is prevented due to the inability of G. In its native range, G.
In these areas it tolerates sand accumulation to depths of several metres around the base of the trees and salt-laden winds, although there is no evidence that it tolerates more than mildly saline soils. Janzen suggested that, within Costa Rica, it is truly native in middle to late succession habitats in only the drier parts of the dry lowland deciduous forest formation in Guanacaste, and lack of seed production in many wetter areas suggests a native distribution restricted to seasonally dry areas Hughes, According to WAC , G.
In many parts of Central America it is an abundant component of secondary vegetation and bush fallows partly due to its ability to withstand fire by quickly resprouting after damage Hughes, ; Simons, a. As a strong light demander and colonizer, it may invade disturbed sites where it can set seed, but it is unlikely to invade closed forest communities. Genetics The chromosome number reported for G. Early introductions of G. There is considerable variation in growth and habit among provenances within G.
Variation in vigour is matched by high genetic diversity among populations as assayed by chloroplast DNA restriction fragment analysis Lavin et al. Simons a showed that G. The hybrids lacked vigour and flowered more precociously and abundantly than either parent, and appear to have little potential for planting. Reproductive Biology The flowering biology, breeding and mating systems of G.
There is a hermaphrodite flowering system coupled with obligate outcrossing and a strong self- incompatibility mechanism WAC, Flowering may start at months of age. Flowers are insect pollinated, visited by a limited variety of insects. Large bees, such as Xylocopa fimbriata , rewarded by abundant nectar production, are the principal pollinators in the native range Janzen, ; Simons, a ; Wiersum and Nitis, Although such bees are capable of distributing pollen over distances of several kilometres, Dawson and Chamberlain detected pollen flow usually over 75 m or less, but occasionally more than m.
In more humid areas, shoot growth may be continuous, and trees remain in leaf all year with only sporadic flowering, and often very sparse or no seed set. In many seasonally dry areas, G. Pod opening is explosive and can catapult seed up to 40 m from standing trees Simons, a. There are , seeds per kilogram Hughes, WAC report viability of seeds for twelve months in open storage conditions.
Seeds germinate within days Whiteman et al. In many areas seed set is extremely low and natural regeneration poor. Physiology and Phenology Flowering and fruiting take place during the dry season, when the tree has shed its leaves. Flowers are insect-pollinated and pods ripen days after flowering, seeds are mature when pods turn yellow-brown; fruiting is relatively uniform with about 20 days from first to last seed dispersal.
In its native area in most years seed production is abundant with predictable timing. In more humid zones shoot growth tends to be continuous and the evergreen tree flowers only sporadically on the basal parts of twigs from which the leaves have dropped. In the native range, G. Hughes observed considerable variation in flowering times between coastal early and higher elevation inland later provenances, variation which was repeated in controlled trial conditions Simons, a.
Trees are deciduous, losing some or all of their leaves during the dry season, and flowering and fruiting while leafless. Leaves flush as seeds are shed, usually about one month prior to the first rain. In non-seasonal, humid areas, such as Kalimantan, Indonesia, trees may be evergreen with continuous shoot growth Siebert, and in these areas flowering is often sporadic with little seed set.
More detailed phenological variation between and within provenances is discussed by Simons a. Mature seeds of G. Early seedling growth is slow, but once established growth is fast, up to 3 m per year.
After cutting trees resprout vigorously. WAC, Environmental Requirements In its native range, G. However, it has been successfully grown in much wetter, humid, non-seasonal climates with annual rainfall as high as mm. A modified description of climatic requirements see climatic data table of this data sheet was prepared by CSIRO Booth and Jovanovic, It tolerates both alkaline and moderately acidic soils with pH in the range 4.
On coastal sand dunes in its native range it sometimes forms extensive thickets in large areas of shifting sand e. In these areas it tolerates salt-laden winds and sand accumulation to depths of several meters around the base of the trees, although there is no evidence that it tolerates more than mildly saline soils. It can be grown up to m altitude. Cercosporidium gliricidiasis causes small, light brown, rounded spots with dark borders. Other diseases include Orwa et al.
Of significant interest is the fact that it is resistant to the psyllid Heteropsylla cubana , which has caused serious devastation to Leucaena leucocephala.
Long distance dispersal is by man, who has planted this species widely in agroforestry, particularly as a shade tree, and widescale repeated introduction to exotic ranges has led to a pantropical distribution. Due to its nitrogen-fixing ability, G. This species also grows forming monospecific thickets that displace native vegetation Anon. Replacement of native species in invaded areas is leading to lower quality habitat for native biodiversity. In addition it is used in living fences, to stabilize soils, to shade plantation crops, as an ornamental, a rodent poison, and in traditional medicine.
Few trees epitomize the idea of a multipurpose tree better than G. The specific epithet 'sepium', meaning 'of hedges' was chosen in reference to the use of G. It is well suited for such use as it can be readily propagated from large stakes and managed by regular pollarding.
A row of stakes produces a very effective living fence that will last for 30 years with minimal maintenance beyond periodic pollarding, whilst loppings provide fuelwood and green manure as well as a ready source of new stakes for replacement posts Simons and Stewart, The dense masses of pink flowers make G. The tree has also been planted to reclaim denuded or Imperata -infested lands.
The name 'madre de cacao' derived from the old Aztec and Nahuatl name 'cacahuananche', was used because the tree has long been planted as nurse and shade tree in cacao plantations in parts of Central America Standley, ; Standley and Steyermark, Its early introduction across the tropics was primarily driven by interest in its cultivation as a shade tree over plantation crops cacao, coffee, tea , but it is not a good coffee shade as it is leafless during the dry season.
Large scale plantations e. It is one of the most popular species used in the sloping agricultural land technology SALT involving contour hedgerows to conserve soil and control erosion in parts of Asia Stewart, , and is an extremely useful tree in wider land rehabilitation Perino, ; Clark and Hellin, There is some evidence to suggest that G.
When intercropped the tree has been reported to control pests, e. In India on the other hand, the tree was found to have a positive effect on the transmission of aphids Aphis craccivora causing rosette disease in groundnuts. The wood is often utilized as firewood, charcoal or as posts and farm implements, locally for furniture, construction purposes and railway sleepers as well. The wood is light to dark olive-brown, very hard and heavy, strong, coarse-textured, with an irregular grain, seasons well and although difficult to work, takes a high polish.
It is highly durable, being resisteant to termites and fungal attack, and is thus valued for house construction and corner fence posts Standley, ; Standley and Steyermark, The heartwood of G.
Palatability may be extremely problematic in some areas e. West Africa, India and the Philippines, Simons and Stewart, ; Stewart, , possibly due to anti-nutritional factors such as flavonols and phenols. This means that ruminants unaccustomed to eating G. Poor palatability is also thought to be caused by the odour of the leaves, possibly attributable to presence of coumarin or other volatile substances released from the leaf surface Stewart, Some toxicity effects have also been documented, possibly caused by conversion of coumarin to dicoumarol, a haemorrhagic compound, during fermentation Simons and Stewart, Despite these mixed perceptions, G.
However, results of using G. Leaves of G. Prunings have a low carbon to nitrogen ratio, high nutrient levels, and when applied as a green manure decompose quickly with an extremely short half-life of 22 days Budelman, This means that prunings can be used to provide a rapid influx of nutrients to crops Glover, but provide minimal mulching benefits in terms of weed control and soil moisture conservation Wiersum and Nitis, Very fast growth, although an advantage to produce plenty of green manure, can be a problem in alley farming systems by demanding high labour inputs to carry out the frequent prunings required to avoid shading Yamoah et al.
Dried bark or leaves ground mixed with cooked maize are used as a rat poison in parts of Central America Standley, ; Standley and Steyermark, ; Glover, ; Stewart, After fermentation seeds, bark, leaves or roots can also be used as a rodenticide and pesticide.
Flowers are also used, being cooked locally for human food, as a useful source of nectar for bees, or for their ornamental attraction. In the Philippines, the juice of the leaves, bark and roots is used to alleviate itches and wounds. Gliricidia maculata is reliably distinguished from G. Due to the variable regulations around de registration of pesticides, your national list of registered pesticides or relevant authority should be consulted to determine which products are legally allowed for use in your country when considering chemical control.
Pesticides should always be used in a lawful manner, consistent with the product's label. No precise information on the control of G.
Catalogue of the Seed Plants of the West Indies. Smithsonian Contributions to Botany, pp. The Leguminosae.
A source book of characteristics, uses and nodulation. Propagation and husbandry. Gliricidia sepium. Genetic resources for farmers.
Tropical Forestry Paper Anon, Potential Environmental Weeds in Australia. Candidate Species for Preventative Control. Appendix C continued Potential environmental weed species that have histories as weeds overseas but are too widespread to, be eradicated from Australia. Boa E, Lenne J, Diseases of nitrogen fixing trees in developing countries: an annotated list. Diseases and insect pests. Genetic Resources for Farmers. Booth TH, Jovanovic T, Plants of the Eastern Caribbean.
Online database. Barbados: University of the West Indies. Budelman A, The decomposition of the leaf mulches of Leucaena leucocephala, Gliricidia sepium and Flemingia macrophylla under humid tropical conditions. Agroforestry Systems, 7 1 CATIE, Chadhokar PA, Gliricidia maculata. A promising legume forage plant. World Animal Review, Methods of identifying genetic diversity in Gliricidia species for biomass production.
Experimental Agriculture, 29 1 Charles Darwin Foundation, Database inventory of introduced plant species in the rural and urban zones of Galapagos. Galapagos, Ecuador: Charles Darwin Foundation, unpaginated. A checklist of the total vascular plant flora of Singapore: native, naturalised and cultivated species.
Clark J, Hellin J, Bio-engineering for effective road maintenance in the Caribbean. Germplasm for multipurpose trees: access and utility in small-farm communities. Csurhes S, Edwards R, Potential environmental weeds in Australia: Candidate species for preventative control.
Canberra, Australia. Biodiversity Group, Environment Australia. Molecular analysis of genetic variation. Diversity and genetic differentiation among subpopulations of Gliricidia sepium revealed by PCR-based assays. Heredity, 74 1 Detection and pattern of interspecific hybridization between Gliricidia sepium and G. Molecular Ecology, 5 1 Duguma B, Establishment of stakes of Gliricidia sepium Jacq. Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, 6: Provenance and progeny trials.
Species Profiles for Pacific Island Agroforestry. Effect of plant density and cutting frequency on the productivity of four tree legumes. Tropical Grasslands, 23 1 Falvey JL, Gliricidia maculata - a review. International Tree Crops Journal, 2 1 Plant resources of southeast Asia. Auxillary plants. Leiden, Netherlands: Backhuys. Ford LB, Experiences with Gliricidia sepium Jacq. Gliricidia sepium Jacq. A geographical checklist of the Micronesian dicotyledonae.
Micronesica, Naturalized exotic tree species in Puerto Rico. Cytology of some arborescent Leguminosae of Nigeria. Silvae Geneticae, 31, Glover N, Gliricidia - its names tell its story. NFT Highlights, No. Gliricidia production and use. Graveson R, Checklist of the vascular plants of Pohnpei with local names and uses. A Geographical Atlas of World Weeds. Hughell D, Prediction models for the growth and yield of Eucalyptus camaldulensis, Gliricidia sepium, Guazuma ulmifolia and Leucaena leucocephala in Central America.
Hughes CE, Biological considerations in designing a seed collection strategy for Gliricidia sepium Jacq. Commonwealth Forestry Review, 66 1 In: Macklin B, Evans D, eds. Perennial Sesbania Species in Agroforestry Systems. Exploration and seed collection of multiple-purpose dry zone trees in Central America.
International Tree Crops Journal, 3 1 The benefits and risks of woody legume introductions. ILDIS, International Legume Database and Information Service. University of Southampton, UK. India Biodiversity Portal, Online Portal of India Biodiversity. Jahan, B. Chromosome numbers in some taxa of Fabaceae mostly native to Pakistan.
Annals of the Missouri Botanical Garden, 81 4 , Janzen DH, Costa Rican natural history. Chicago and London: University of Chicago Press. Alley farming.
Advances in Agronomy, Kpikpi WM, Sackey I, Intraspecific chloroplast DNA variation in Gliricidia sepium Leguminosae : intraspecific phylogeny and tokogeny. American Journal of Botany, 78 11 Lavin M, Sousa M, Phylogenetic systematics and biogeography of the tribe Robineae Leguminosae. Systematic Botany Monographs, Diseases of multi-purpose woody legumes in the tropics: a review.
Nitrogen Fixing Tree Research Reports, Lima HC, Common trees of Puerto Rico and the Virgin Islands. Agriculture Handbook U. Department of Agriculture No. Liyanage LVK, Traditional uses of gliricidia in Sri Lanka. Effects of shading on seedling growth of Gliricidia sepium. Lorence DH, Flynn T, Checklist of the plants of Kosrae. MacKee HS, Catalogue of introduced and cultivated plants in New Caledonia. McVaugh R, Flora Novo-Galiciana: a descriptive account of the vascular plants of western Mexico.
Volume 5. General Editor Anderson, W. Merrill ED, Notes on the flora of Manila with special reference to the introduced element. Philippine Journal of Sciences, Botany, National Academy of Sciences, Neal MC, In gardens of Hawaii. Bernice Bishop Museum Special Publication Genotype-environment interaction in Gliricidia sepium: phenotypic stability of provenances for leaf biomass yield.
Agroforestree Database: a tree reference and selection guide version 4. Manejo y produccion de cercas vivas de Gliricidia sepium en el noroeste de Honduras. Parrotta JA, Gliricidia, Mother of cocoa. The stem and branches are commonly flecked with small white lenticels.
Trees display spreading crowns. Leaflet midrib and rachis are occasionally striped red. Inflorescences appear as clustered racemes on distal parts on new and old wood, cm long, flowers borne singly with per raceme. Flowers bright pink to lilac, tinged with white, usually with a diffuse pale yellow spot at the base of the standard petal, calyx glabrous, green, often tinged red. Standard petal round and nearly erect, approximately 20 mm long; keel petals mm long, mm wide.
Fruit green sometimes tinged reddish-purple when unripe, light yellow-brown when mature, narrow, cm long, 2 cm wide, valves twisting in dehiscence; seeds , yellow- brown to brown, nearly round. Env ironm ental adaptation Despite the widespread present occurrence of gliricidia in cultivation throughout Central America and Mexico, it is likely to be native only in seasonally dry areas.
It is largely deciduous during the dry season. In areas where sufficient moisture prevails, however, the tree is evergreen e. Kalimantan, Indonesia; Seibert Its temperature requirements are not too exacting as shown by the wide variation in mean monthly temperature It will not, however, tolerate frosts which partly explains its absence above 1, m in the native range.
Whiteman et al. Gliricidia can be managed as a coppice in areas with light frost, by cutting new growth before frosts occur. The 30 sites sampled by Hughes in his range-wide collection of populations of G. Most soils were highly eroded, acid pH 4. At exotic locations, such as Peru, Szott et al. Furthermore, Whiteman et al. A common feature of seasonally dry regions of Central America and Mexico is perennial fires which burn through fallow land and secondary forest.
Gliricidia tolerates fires well and trees quickly re-sprout with onset of the rains. The increased frequency of deliberate burning may be responsible for its high occurrence in secondary vegetation and fallows. Cultiv ation and m anagem ent Gliricidia sepium is commonly planted vegetatively and a full description of propagation methods is given in Glover The ease of propagation from stakes is a major advantage, especially as trees managed for leaf production with frequent cutting may not flower and thus set no seed.
Gliricidia establishes readily from cuttings or 'quick sticks' and is ideal for shade trees, support trees or 'living fences'. The cutting is normally cut obliquely at both ends, discarding the younger tips, and the base inserted cm into the soil depending on the length of the cutting. Cuttings for live fences may be up to cm long whilst those for hedgerows may be cm in length.
This makes a surprisingly strong hedge. In other areas, barbed wire is strained along the line of rooted cuttings and anchored to supported corner posts to make an equally strong fence. The hedges can be periodically pruned to provide fodder, green manure, firewood or stakes for new fences. Frequency of pruning depends on the environmental conditions for growth and the end use of prunings.
Hedges around crops need to be pruned regularly to control shading. It can be propagated by seed, usually sown in plastic sachets; the seedlings are usually cut back, as "stumps" prior to planting. The usual precautions to avoid seedlings drying out or being exposed to direct sunlight should be observed. Following germination, trees grow extremely quickly and may attain a height of 3 m before flowering at months.
Little is known about herbicides for use with tree legumes although Glyphosate 1 kg a. Ella et al. In hedgerow plantings, however, intra-row spacing seems to have little effect on overall yield, as lower individual tree productivity is compensated for by higher plant density.
Atta-Krah and Sumberg recommended an intra-row spacing of 10 cm, but found only small differences in productivity for spacings ranging from 4 cm to 50 cm. In the same study, plants propagated from stakes were initially much more productive than those grown from seed, but by the fifth harvest one year after the first the difference was no longer significant.
The optimum frequency of lopping for leaf production depends on the local climate; clearly trees can be lopped more frequently in the wet than in the dry season. In general, total annual biomass yield increases with less frequent cutting, but as this also increases the wood:leaf ratio the effect of cutting interval on leaf yield is less pronounced.
For gliricidia grown in the humid tropics and used only for forage, a cutting interval of weeks is usually recommended. Seed production Gliricidia is largely outcrossing so it needs to be isolated from other trees of the same or related species to prevent cross- pollination. It should be planted in blocks containing at least 30 trees and isolated by at least m. A border row should be established around the block and seed should not be collected from this row.
Flowering begins at the start of the dry season and can continue in some native populations until the end of March in Central America. Altitude was suggested by Hughes to exert a large influence on the onset of flowering with lower coastal sites flowering well before sites at higher altitudes i.
The periodicity of pod ripening is partly dependent upon the climatic conditions and typically takes days. Gliricidia grown in wet climates often flowers but sets little if any fruit.
To obtain maximum seed yields, trees need to have a good framework to maximize potential floral sites. Cutting gliricidia to 0. On- farm trials in dry-land farming in Bali showed that Gliricidia sepium as a multipurpose shrub producing fodder, cuttings, firewood and seed is best planted in clusters Nitis, et al. Seed yield was closely related to the number of set racemes per tree. Seeds are shed from pods through explosive dehiscence with seed dispersal distances of up to 40 meters.
Harvest is usually by collection of ripe pods before they dehisce, followed by drying in a site where seed from exploding pods can readily be recovered. Crop use and grazing m anagem ent Gliricidia is lopped, not grazed.
It re-sprouts vigorously after lopping and will tolerate repeated cutting. Moreover, its phenology is affected by cutting: re-sprouts retain their leaves in the dry season in the tropics when older shoots are deciduous.
Management by lopping thus greatly enhances the value of gliricidia as a dry season forage. Gliricidia is generally used as a high protein supplement to low quality basal feeds such as grass, straw and other crop residues. There are numerous reports of increases in weight gain and milk production in both large and small ruminants when gliricidia forage is used as a supplement.
According to Lowry , the only real constraint to its feed value for ruminants lies in its palatability. Animals seem to refuse gliricidia leaves on the basis of smell, often rejecting it without tasting it, which suggests that the problem lies with volatile compounds released from the leaf surface. A number of methods are used to increase its acceptability. Wilting gliricidia leaves for h before feeding is found to increase intake markedly in many of the areas where gliricidia is used as forage, and is therefore recommended wherever there are palatability problems.
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